Pulmonary drug delivery

Biofilm-associated lung infections, particularly those caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis and bronchiectasis patients, represent a major therapeutic challenge. The extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix, metabolic heterogeneity, and microenvironmental gradients within biofilms drastically reduce antibiotic penetration and efficacy. Nanoparticle (NP)-based therapeutics offer unique advantages, such as enhanced biofilm penetration, controlled release, and localized delivery via inhalation. This review summarizes the latest developments in the design, synthesis, and characterization of nanoparticles intended for treating biofilm-associated pulmonary infections. The discussion emphasizes materials selection, fabrication routes, and physicochemical parameters influencing antibiofilm performance, with critical perspectives on translational challenges, safety, and future directions.

Dry powder inhalers (DPIs) represent a pivotal technology in pulmonary drug delivery, offering advantages such as improved stability, breath-actuated dosing, and enhanced patient convenience. This review presents an in-depth exploration of DPIs, from foundational principles to emerging innovations. Beginning with the historical development and physiological basis for pulmonary delivery, the review delves into the mechanisms of DPI function, highlighting the importance of aerodynamic particle behavior and key physicochemical properties. Critical formulation components such as active pharmaceutical ingredients, carrier particles, and excipients are examined alongside particle engineering and manufacturing technologies essential for scalable, high-quality production. Device design and aerosolization mechanisms are discussed in the context of usability, patient handling, and dose consistency. In vitro and in vivo performance evaluation techniques, including aerosol characterization, deposition studies, and pharmacokinetics, are reviewed. This review also captures recent advances in nanotechnology, biologics delivery, smart inhalers, and vaccine formulations. Regulatory frameworks, market dynamics, and current commercial DPI products are assessed to provide a comprehensive view of the global landscape. Finally, future directions are outlined, including personalized medicine approaches, sustainable inhaler technologies, and opportunities for innovation in systemic and respiratory therapies.